The Fertile Crescent and the Rise of Civilization Part II

Sumerian

Learning Outcome

• Describe key characteristics of Sumerian City-States
• Explain ancient Sumerian's history and culture

 Key Focus Points

• One of the larger Sumerian cities may have had 40,000 residents.
• The Sumerian city-states were often at war with one another.
• The Sumerians were famously fond of beer.
• Cuneiform writing was used for over 3,000 years.
• Sumerian mathematics and measurements are still used today.

The Sumerians were one of the earliest civilizations. Sumer was an ancient civilization founded in the Mesopotamia region of the Fertile Crescent situated between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Around 5,500 years ago, the Sumerians built cities along the rivers in Lower Mesopotamia. This early population -- known as the Ubaid people, made notable strides in the development of civilization, such as farming and raising cattle, weaving textiles, working with carpentry and pottery, and even enjoying a beer. People build their villages and towns around Ubaid farming communities. Their growth and expansion were dependent on rich river valley farmlands.
Sumerian city-states were communities that include a city and its nearby farmland. The nearby villages and towns attached themselves to big cities for protection. These relationships created a system of city-states. City-states became the centers of trade, learning, and religion and offered people more opportunities than living in the country. Each city-state had its government and laws, and each had its main god.
The civilization of ancient Sumer was composed of 12 significant city-states, including Eridu, Nippur, Lagash, Kish, Ur, and the first complex city globally, Uruk. Inside the walls of the city, people built their homes out of mud bricks. The walls of the houses were thick, enclosing a series of rooms built around a courtyard. Palm leaves covered the square and hung from wooden beams. The loose layering of palm leaves helped protect the people from the sun.
The Sumerians developed a social order with three classes. People of each class had distinct roles within Sumerian society. The upper class included the ruler, his top officials, powerful priests, wealthy merchants, and owners of large plots of land. Farmers and skilled workers made up the middle class. Artisans were devoted to producing things for either the temples or the warrior-soldiers, which protected the temple community. The lowest class was primarily slaves. The majority of the people were servant-slaves of the god of the temple. Sumerian social class affected the lives of men and women. The women worked as merchants, farmers, or artisans. Women could own property in their name and could join the priesthood. Some upper-class women did learn to read and write. Sumerian women had more rights than women in many later civilizations.
In each city, one building was likely to stand out from all the others and was the center of city life. The largest and most important structure in a city was the temple. It was called a ziggurat, a large pyramid-shaped building with a temple at the top dedicated to a Sumerian deity. The people were to devote their lives to appease the gods to prevent calamities from befalling the community. The first ziggurats appear around 2200 BCE.
To protect their cities, people tried to please their gods. The priests claimed they had extraordinary influence to engage the gods. Kings and priests created religious ceremonies that supported royal power. Consequently, the priests controlled much of the wealth and held great power in the city. People in Mesopotamia were polytheists, which means they believed in many gods and goddesses. The people believed in four main gods and thousands of lesser gods. They believed their four main gods - the gods of the sky, wind, foothills, and freshwater - created the world and ruled over it. The priest taught the people that their gods were like wealthy landowners who created humans to work for them.
The Sumerian people cooperated, specialized, and made many advances in technology. The people are known for their innovations in language, governance, architecture. They "invented" time by dividing day and night into 12-hour periods, hours into 60 minutes, and minutes into 60 seconds. Other innovations and inventions include the first schools, the earliest version of the tale of the Great Flood and other biblical narratives, the oldest heroic epic, governmental bureaucracy, monumental architecture, the wheel, the plow, writing, and irrigation techniques are examples of their achievements.
Each city-state had its ruler, often the high priest or a man called Lugal-gals, or "big man." Over time, the Lugal-gals took over control from the priests. The Lugal-gal (big-man) eventually became known as kings, and the land they ruled was known as a kingdom. To stay in power, kings needed the support of the priests. Kings were careful to respect the priests' rights and powers. In turn, priests declared that the gods had sent the king to rule the city. Each king also served as the city's chief lawmaker and judge. Together, kings and priests created religious ceremonies that supported royal power. There was also a government with officials who organized and kept the city running. There were also laws that the citizens must follow or face punishment.
The Sumerian city-states fought for control of the river water and trade. Trade between the settlements became vital because it stimulated 'territorial aggrandizement, political unification, and population concentration within the political units. Each city-state needed an army to protect itself from its neighbors. Skilled metalworkers in Sumer's cities turned out bronze spearheads by the thousands. The Sumerians invented chariots and were the first to use them in battle. In the lime of war, priests did not lead the city. Instead, the men of the city chose a tough fighter who could command the city's soldiers. At first, a commander's power ended as soon as the war was over. From 3000 to 2000 BCE, conflicts between cities became more and more frequent. The weakened city-states could no longer ward off attacks from the peoples of the surrounding deserts and hills. Gradually, Sumerian priests and people gave commanders permanent control of standing armies.
By 3000 BCE, the Sumerians had built several cities, each surrounded by barley and wheat fields. Although these cities shared the same culture, they developed their governments, each with its rulers. Each city and the surrounding land it controlled formed a city-state. The Sumerians stand out in history and are considered the creators of civilization as modern humans understand it. Five key characteristics set Sumer apart from earlier human societies: (1) advanced cities, (2) specialized workers, (3) complex institutions, (4) record-keeping, and (5) advanced technology. All the later peoples who lived in this region of the world built upon the innovations of Sumerian civilization. Sumerians left behind scores of written records that would influence later works in Greece and Rome and sections of the Bible, most notably the story of the Great Flood, the Garden of Eden, and the Tower of Babel.

Watch the video: Sumerian Summary

Babylonian

The Mesopotamian city-state of Babylon twice expanded to become an important world empire. The capital of the Babylonian Empire was the citadel of Babylon situated on both sides of the Euphrates River west of Samaria and south of Assyria. The city, occupied by the Amorite King Sumuabum (1894-1881 BCE), founder of the new dynasty, became a major political, religious, economic, and cultural center. He was the ruler who would go on to turn this once small kingdom into a new empire whose dominion and influence would extend over the entire region of Mesopotamia for over thirteen centuries. As an Akkadian town, Babylon is said to one of the first cities in the history of the world to reach a population of over 200,000 people.

Learning Outcome

• Describe key characteristics of the Babylonian Empire.

 Key Focus Points

• Babylon remained a minor territory for a century, until the reign of King Hammurabi (1792-1750 BCE), an extremely efficient ruler who established a bureaucracy with taxation and centralized government.
• Hammurabi enjoyed various military successes over the whole of southern Mesopotamia.
• There are three social classes: the amelu (the elite), the mushkenu (free men) and ardu (slave).
• Women had limited rights and were mostly based on marriage contracts and divorce rights.
• The Code of Hammurabi include laws about slander, trade, slavery, the duties of workers, theft, liability, and divorce.
• The Babylonians produced extensive compendiums of astronomical records of basic medical processes, such as diagnosis and prognosis, and also cataloged a variety of illnesses with their symptoms.

The Babylonians took their name from their capital and only major city. Babylonia was founded as a kingdom around 1900 BCE by Semitic Amorites that overran Canaan, Akkad, and Sumer one hundred years earlier; it was a major political, religious, economic, and cultural center.  The Babylonian Empire was governed by a King, who was the absolute authority in the territory. The King was in charge of exercising legislative, judicial, and executive power. He was in charge of dictating the rules and enforcing them. Under his position, were governors and their administrators. It was a very select group chosen by the King. The mayors, the councils of elders, along with the people that are free men and those that were slaves. Slaves were able to buy land. Free men were those of low class (peasants, small tradesmen), and those of high class (usually priests or merchants who reached great wealth).

The economy of Babylonia included bountiful harvests of grain, vegetables, fruit, and livestock. Herds of sheep and some cattle supplemented the crops. The Babylonians traded food surpluses for raw materials like copper, gold, and wood, which they used to manufacture weapons, household objects, jewelry, and other items that could be traded. At the center of a far-flung and prosperous trading empire, the people of Babylon had access to exotic goods and manufactured items from throughout the world.

Babylonian astronomers developed a new empirical approach to astronomy. They began studying philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the universe and began employing an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems. Clay tablets dating back to the Old Babylonian period, document the application of mathematics to variations in the length of daylight over a solar year. The oldest rectangular astrolabe dates back to Babylonia 1100 BCE.

Centuries of Babylonian observations of celestial phenomena are recorded in a series of cuneiform tablets known as the “Enūma Anu Enlil.” The oldest Babylonian texts are the Diagnostic Handbook written by the ummânū, or chief scholar, Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa. The Babylonians introduced the concepts of diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, and prescriptions. The Diagnostic Handbook additionally introduced the methods of therapy and etiology, outlining the use of empiricism, logic, and rationality in diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment.

Libraries existed in most towns and temples. Women, as well as men, learned to read and write and knew the extinct Sumerian language. A considerable amount of Babylonian literature was translated from Sumerian originals, and the language of religion and law long continued to be written in the style of Sumer. There are many Babylonian literary works whose titles have come down to us. One of the most famous Babylonian literary works is the Epic of Gilgamesh, in twelve books, translated from the original Sumerian by Sin-liqi-unninni. The epic is the story of a single adventure in the career of King Gilgamesh.

The origins of Babylonian philosophy can be traced back to early Mesopotamian wisdom literature, which embodied philosophies of life, particularly ethics, in the forms of dialectic, dialogs, epic poetry, folklore, hymns, lyrics, prose, and proverbs. The Babylonian philosophy is noted to have influenced Greek philosophy, particularly Hellenistic philosophy.

King Sumuabum turned Babylon into a kingdom that would remain until six kings later, a king named Hammurabi (Hammurapi),  from  1792  BCE  to 1750 BCE, would ascend to the throne. King Hammurabi extended the kingdom to encompass all of Sumer to the east and Akkad to the north. He fortified the capital, walling it in and extending his Empire from Elam, which was in the east, to Syria, which was in the west. King Hammurabi cemented and provided the basis for the Babylonian Empire. During his reign, he established as the official language the Akkadian tongue, and as the religious worship of the god Marduk. The Babylonians worshipped many gods, chief of these was Marduk, the god of the city of Babylon. In the artwork, Marduk was depicted in the form of a dragon. The interior of the Temple of Marduk was reportedly covered with gold. The final fall of the Babylonian Empire happened during the 16th Century when the Hittite people invade the city and destroy it. Later, a new period of splendor for the Babylonian Empire arrives, but it finally ends with the invasion by the Persian Empire.

Watch the video: Babylonian Empire

Assyrian 

The Assyrian Empire began in northern Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) along the Tigris River, and spread as far as Egypt. The first Assyrian kingdom was settled after the city of Sumer was founded to the south. The kingdom was dominated by the Sumerians, both culturally and politically, during its early history. Around 2000 BCE, a Semitic people called the Amorites invaded Assyria. By 1800 BCE, an Amorite king of the Assyrians had established control over most of northern Mesopotamia.

Learning Outcome

• Describe key characteristics and notable events of the Assyrian Empire

Key Focus Points

• Centered on the Upper Tigris river in northern Mesopotamia, the Assyrians came to rule powerful empires at several times, the last of which grew to be the largest and most powerful ancient Empire.
• The Assyrian empire was at the height of technological, scientific, and cultural achievements for its time.

The Assyrian Empire was a major Semitic kingdom of the Ancient Near East. Centered on the Upper Tigris river, in northern Mesopotamia (northern Iraq, northeast Syria, and southeastern Turkey), the Assyrians existed as an independent state for approximately 19 centuries. Assyria is named for its capital, the ancient city of Ašur (Ashur). Ashur was one of a number of Akkadian city-states in Mesopotamia. In the late 24th century BCE, Assyrian kings were regional leaders under King Sargon of Akkad, who united all the Akkadian Semites and Sumerian-speaking peoples of Mesopotamia under the Akkadian Empire (2334 - 2154 BCE).

The Middle Assyrian Empire dominated the region from 1363 to 1000 BCE. Several strong kings first reasserted Assyrian independence and then began encroaching on neighboring empires. Their power was short-lived in this period, however, due first to the rise of Babylonia under Hammurabi and later to the ascendancy of Mitanni in modern Syria. The Assyrian economy was based on agriculture and herding, and they benefited from being situated astride some important trade routes. They are remembered as tax collectors and getting rich on merchants passing through their territories.

The Mesopotamian and Sumerian cultures heavily influenced the Assyrian religion. The chief god of the Assyrians was Ashur, from whom both their culture and capital derive their names. Their temples were large ziggurats built of mud bricks, like those of their neighbors to the south. Assyria was at the height of technological, scientific, and cultural achievements. Assyria is also remembered for its military victories, technological advancements (such as using iron for weapons and building roads), and written history of conquests. After its fall (between 612 - 605 BCE), Assyria remained a province and geo-political entity under the Babylonian, Median, Achaemenid, Seleucid, Parthian, Roman, and Sassanid Empires, until the Arab Islamic invasion and conquest of Mesopotamia in the middle 7th century CE.

Watch the video: Assyrian Civilization

Hittite

The history of the Hittite civilization is known mostly from cuneiform texts found in the area of their kingdom, and from diplomatic and commercial correspondence found in various archives in the Middle East. The Hittites were an Ancient Anatolian people who established an empire at Hattusa in north-central Anatolia around 1600 BCE.

Learning Outcomes

• Describe the key characteristics of the Hittite Empire

Key Focus Points

• The Hittite Empire was established at Hattusa in north-central Anatolia around 1600 BCE and reached its height during the mid-14th century BCE under Suppiluliuma I.
• The head of the Hittite state was the King, but other officials exercised independent authority over various branches of the government.
• The Hittite military made the successful use of chariots and advanced iron-working technologies.

The Hittite language was a member of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family. They referred to their native land as Hatti. The Hittite's religion and mythology were heavily influenced by their Hattic, Mesopotamian, and Hurrian counterparts. In earlier times, Indo-European elements may still be discerned. "Storm gods" were prominent in the Hittite pantheon. Tarhunt was referred to as "The Conqueror," "The King of Kummiya," "King of Heaven," and "Lord of the land of Hatti." As the god of battle and victory, especially against foreign powers, he was chief among the gods and was depicted as a bearded man astride two mountains and bearing a club. The head of the Hittite state was the King, followed by the heir apparent. Some officials exercised independent authority over various branches of the government. For example, one of the most important posts in the government was that of the Gal Mesedi (Chief of the Royal Bodyguards). The kingdom's bureaucracy was headed by the Gal Dubsar (Chief of the Scribes).

The Hittites military made successful use of chariots and were the forerunners of the Iron Age and were manufacturing iron artifacts as early as the 14th century BCE. Correspondence with rulers from other empires reveals a foreign demand for iron goods. The Hittite Empire reached its height under King Suppiluliuma I (1350–1322 BCE) and Mursili II (1321–1295 BCE) when it encompassed an area that included most of Asia Minor as well as parts of the northern Levant and Upper Mesopotamia. After 1180 BCE, amid general turmoil in the Levant associated with the sudden arrival of the Sea Peoples, the kingdom disintegrated into several independent “Neo-Hittite” city-states.

Watch the video: Hittites Civilization